At Potsdam (1945), Allies agreed to split Germany into 4 zones, demilitarise it & est. a democratic govt. BUT
• US, UK & France merged their zones into West Germany, formed the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), revitalised economy, joined NATO, stationed troops & rearmed (all Potsdam).
• 1961: FRG Chancellor
(very anti-Soviet) pushed USA to keep troops in Germany; by 1960, 1.5k US
stored there.
• → USSR forming the Warsaw Pact, gave sovereignty to East Germany (GDR, 1954), which built a large army.
• GDR leader
wanted the border closed ∵ refugees to W. Berlin → wrecking GDR economy.
• 1960: Ulbricht disrupted traffic to West, pressured USSR to stop nuclear arms in FRG.
ie Germany = Cold War flashpoint, w. hostile armies facing each other.
THE IMPORTANCE OF BERLIN
W. Berlin = capitalist enclave in GDR, key Cold War battleground.
From US PoV:
• Kennedy (25 July 1960): W. Berlin = "testing place of Western courage," vital to W. Ger, Europe & Free World.
• W. Berlin = vulnerable; Khrushchev called it the West’s ‘’ to squeeze at will.
• US military rights there were tenuous.
• Kennedy, young & tough on Communism (eg financed anti-Communists in Vietnam & Cuba).
• US advisers warned Kennedy that Khrushchev would bully him; Adenauer doubted Kennedy’s resolve.
From Soviet PoV:
Filitov (2010): USSR concerned due to:
1. US nuclear arms in FRG.
2. GDR’s weaker economy.
3. By 1961 3million+ East Germans fled via W. Berlin (1.8k/day by Aug 1961).
5. US/UK/France ignored Potsdam except when it suited them.
6. US used W. Berlin for espionage (Khrushchev: W. Berlin = "").
7. China pressured USSR to be tougher vs US; Mao mocked ‘peaceful coexistence’ as “”.
Khrushchev assumed West would back down, saw Kennedy as weak (knew more about Cuba than Kennedy).
EVENTS
1. Nov 1958 – Khrushchev’s
: Proposed 4 powers withdraw from Germany for unification talks; ignored by West. Revisited w. Eisenhower (1959), stalled by U-2 crisis (1960).
2. 4-5 June 1961 –
: Khrushchev threatened/mentioned war, Kennedy refused change. Kennedy later: "worst experience of my life."
3. 25 July – Kennedy’s Speech: Rejected Soviet ‘Peace Treaty’ idea, promised to defend W. Berlin & increased US military spending. Khrushchev met Ulbricht, proposed a Wall.
4. 3-5 Aug – Warsaw Pact Meeting: Pact members approved the Wall, agreed on economic aid for GDR if West sanctioned them.
5. 13 Aug – Berlin Wall: GDR erected barbed wire, later concrete wall.
RESULTS
1. Berlin divided; 100s died trying to cross. German reunification delayed for 28 yrs.
2. Khrushchev’s reaction: Victory! – surprised West, stabilised GDR economy. "Now Ulbricht laughs at the Americans."
3. Kennedy’s reaction: Relieved –
"better than war.” Wall became a symbol of Communist oppression. June 1963:
Kennedy’s “” speech; 1.4m W. Berliners & many E. Berliners (who could hear but not see him) cheered.
4. Cold War
decreased: Minor US-Soviet standoff at
(27 Oct 1961) de-escalated. Cold War focus shifted to Vietnam.
5. Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): William Smyser: Kennedy’s passive response to the Wall emboldened Khrushchev to place missiles in Cuba.
THE PROBLEM OF GERMANY
At Potsdam (1945), Allies agreed to split Germany into 4 zones, demilitarise it & est. a democratic govt. BUT
• US, UK & France merged their zones into West Germany, formed the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), revitalised economy, joined NATO, stationed troops & rearmed (all VIOLATING Potsdam).
• 1961: FRG Chancellor KONRAD ADENAUER (very anti-Soviet) pushed USA to keep troops in Germany; by 1960, 1.5k US NUCLEAR WARHEADS stored there.
• → USSR forming the Warsaw Pact, gave sovereignty to East Germany (GDR, 1954), which built a large army.
• GDR leader WALTER ULBRICHT wanted the border closed ∵ refugees to W. Berlin → wrecking GDR economy.
• 1960: Ulbricht disrupted traffic to West, pressured USSR to stop nuclear arms in FRG.
ie Germany = Cold War flashpoint, w. hostile armies facing each other.
THE IMPORTANCE OF BERLIN
W. Berlin = capitalist enclave in GDR, key Cold War battleground.
From US PoV:
• Kennedy (25 July 1960): W. Berlin = "testing place of Western courage," vital to W. Ger, Europe & Free World.
• W. Berlin = vulnerable; Khrushchev called it the West’s ‘TESTICLE’ to squeeze at will.
• US military rights there were tenuous.
• Kennedy, young & tough on Communism (eg financed anti-Communists in Vietnam & Cuba).
• US advisers warned Kennedy that Khrushchev would bully him; Adenauer doubted Kennedy’s resolve.
From Soviet PoV:
Filitov (2010): USSR concerned due to:
1. US nuclear arms in FRG.
2. GDR’s weaker economy.
3. By 1961 3million+ East Germans fled via W. Berlin (1.8k/day by Aug 1961).
5. US/UK/France ignored Potsdam except when it suited them.
6. US used W. Berlin for espionage (Khrushchev: W. Berlin = "CANCEROUS TUMOUR").
7. China pressured USSR to be tougher vs US; Mao mocked ‘peaceful coexistence’ as “BOURGEOIS PACIFIST”.
Khrushchev assumed West would back down, saw Kennedy as weak (knew more about Cuba invasion than Kennedy).
EVENTS
1. Nov 1958 – Khrushchev’s ULTIMATUM: Proposed 4 powers withdraw from Germany for unification talks; ignored by West. Revisited w. Eisenhower (1959), stalled by U-2 crisis (1960).
2. 4-5 June 1961 – VIENNA SUMMIT: Khrushchev threatened/mentioned war, Kennedy refused change. Kennedy later: "worst experience of my life."
3. 25 July – Kennedy’s Speech: Rejected Soviet ‘Peace Treaty’ idea, promised to defend W. Berlin & increased US military spending. Khrushchev met Ulbricht, proposed a Wall.
4. 3-5 Aug – Warsaw Pact Meeting: Pact members approved the Wall, agreed on economic aid for GDR if West sanctioned them.
5. 13 Aug – Berlin Wall: GDR erected barbed wire, later concrete wall.
RESULTS
1. Berlin divided; 100s died trying to cross. German reunification delayed for 28 yrs.
2. Khrushchev’s reaction: Victory! – surprised West, stabilised GDR economy. "Now Ulbricht laughs at the Americans."
3. Kennedy’s reaction: Relieved – "better than war.” Wall became a symbol of Communist oppression. June 1963: Kennedy’s “ICH BIN EIN BERLINER” speech; 1.4m W. Berliners & many E. Berliners (who could hear but not see him) cheered.
4. Cold War TENSIONS decreased: Minor US-Soviet standoff at CHECKPOINT CHARLIE (27 Oct 1961) de-escalated. Cold War focus shifted to Vietnam.
5. Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): William Smyser: Kennedy’s passive response to the Wall emboldened Khrushchev to place missiles in Cuba.
