A Divided Society

I – Immigration

Why did people emigrate to the USA?

1. Many were escaping poverty, persecution/discrimination in their country of birth

2. America was known all over the world as the land of prosperity, opportunity and freedom. 

Going Deeper

The following links will help you widen your knowledge:

BBC Bitezise notes on immigration, the Red Scare and Life for Immigrants

Historiography of American immigration

Isolationism

'Native' and 'Foreign' - extensive resources about the immigration issue

  Essay: What was life like for immigrants to America in the 1920s?

Podcast

Giles Hill on American Isolationism

Powerpoint

Isolationism

YouTube

Vito Corleone comes to New York - director Francis Ford Coppola's interpretation of arriving at Ellis Island for the 1972 film The Godfather.

Little Italy - Francis Ford Coppola's 1972 interpretation

Little Italy - images from the time

Source D

A 1921 cartoon by the American artist Hallahan: 'The Only Way to Handle It'

Why did Americans want to stop immigration?  [TRIADS]

ALL Americans were immigrant families, of course, but until 1890 most immigrants were 'WASPs' (white Anglo-Saxon Protestants) from the wealthier countries of Europe such as Britain, Germany and Sweden. 

1. Trade Unions

   opposed immigration because they feared that immigrants would work for lower wages and take their jobs. 

2. Racism, nativism and eugenics

   The profusion of races worried the WASPs; one Senator in the 1920s said that the American pioneers were turning into 'a race of mongrels'.  In 1916 eugenicist Madison Grant published The Passing of the Great Race, which claimed that northern European races were genetically superior, and that the ‘inferior stock’ of southern & eastern Europe and Asia would dilute the purer American genes.  This racism is sometimes called ‘nativism’; in 1924 the state of Virginia passed a Racial Integrity Act which set the 'one-drop rule': a person with even one drop of non-white ancestry was classified as ‘colored’ or non-white. 

3. Isolationism

   The trauma of WWI led many Americans to want to return to the Monroe Doctrine of 1823, that America should stay out of Europe's affairs, and Europe should stay out of America's. 

4. 'Alien menace'

   Communism terrified Americans; after 1919 there was a ‘Red Scare’ and immigrants – especially Italians – were suspected of bringing communism and anarchism. 

   Meanwhile, Italian ‘Mafia’, Chinese ‘Tong’ and Jewish groups such as the Detroit ‘Purple Gang’ formed organised crime groups.  Famous immigrant gangsters of the 1920s include ‘Lucky’ Luciano, Frank Costello and Al Capone. 

5. 'Different'

   After 1890, more immigrants started arriving from Eastern Europe and Asia; they were often poor, illiterate, could not speak English, and had different cultures and religions … and tended therefore to live in ethnic neighbourhoods, where they could worship, shop, and socialize together.  This separation from mainstream American society led to further ignorance of their cultures and traditions among other Americans, which increased prejudice and racism views in society. 

6. 'Swamped'

   The large numbers of immigrants arriving (13 million 1900-14) led many Americans to fear they were being ‘swamped’.  Cities were growing quickly, and services struggled to keep up with the expansion. 

Immigration Quotas

Demand grew to slow down immigration.  An Immigration Restriction League was formed in 1894, and there followed a number of laws to restrict immigration:

1. 1917: Immigration Law

   This required all immigrants to prove they could read English, banned all immigration from Asia, and charged an immigration fee of $8. 

2. 1921: Emergency Quota Act

   This stated that the number of immigrants from 'the eastern hemisphere' could not be more than 3% of the number already in America in 1910.  It set the maximum number of immigrants in any year at 357,000. 

3. 1924: Reed-Johnson Act

   Maximum number of immigrants in any year at 154,000.  Quota from eastern hemisphere reduced to 2% of those already in America in 1890; the South and the East of Europe were thus only allowed to send 20,000 immigrants per year, and non-Europeans only 4,000. 

The Experience of Immigrants [ARCADE]

1. Arrival

   • Immigrants (70% of whom arrived on Ellis Island) had to undergo medical tests and anyone suffering from a disease was kept on the Island for days or even weeks, or else returned to their own country. 

   • Immigrants were questioned about their work and financial situation, and were given literacy tests (for fear they might become a burden on society).

   • Some had to wait for money from relatives before they could leave the island.

   • Young women were detained until a relative came for them (for fear they might become destitute and resort to prostitution). 

2. Reduced Work Opportunities

   • Many immigrants (and their children) took work in industrial and manufacturing sectors, including factories, mills, and mines.  Jobs were often low-paying, physically demanding, and involved long hours – the jobs that native-born Americans would not take.  Some businesses took advantage of their need and recruited immigrants into positions involving both long hours and low pay. 

   • Many immigrants worked fanatically hard, and sent their children to good schools, trying to build a better life for the next generation. 

3. Conditions & Communities

   • Most immigrants went to the cities, where they often lived in overcrowded, insanitary and substandard housing, with many immigrant communities developing into slums. 

   • Ethnic Enclaves developed – tight-knit communities where immigrants could maintain their cultural practices, speak their native languages, and support one another.  Examples include Little Italy, Chinatown, and Jewish ghettos in major cities.  Maintaining cultural traditions, such as food, language, religion, and festivals, was crucial for preserving a sense of identity and community – and therefore a sense of ‘safeness’ – among immigrants.

   • Access to healthcare and Social Services was often limited, with immigrants relying on community-based clinics and services provided by charitable organizations.  Settlement houses, such as Hull House in Chicago, provided essential services to immigrant communities, including education, healthcare, and legal assistance. 

4. Americanisation

   • Measures were taken to 'Americanise' immigrants.  Not all this was racism and prejudice - many social workers saw it as a way to help immigrants out of the terrible poverty many of them lived in:

     • The Federal Bureau of Naturalization organised naturalization proceedings, and patriotic 'Americanization Day' rallies and Fourth of July celebrations

     • The Federal Bureau of Education organised courses on politics and democracy to prepare immigrants for the 'citizenship exam'

   • Children of immigrants attended public schools where they learned English and American customs, aiding in their integration into American society.

   • In time, immigrant culture significantly enriched American culture through contributions in music, cuisine, literature, and the arts, building a pluralistic society in the United States. 

5. Discrimination

   • Anti-immigrant sentiment and nativism led to every-day social discrimination, economic exploitation, and legislative restrictions. 

   • Laws such as the Naturalization Act restricted the ability of the ‘second wave’ of immigrants to become citizens.  This barred them from voting and political participation.

   • In some industries, such as mining, immigrants were forced to live in company-owned towns where they paid rent and bought goods at inflated prices from company stores, leaving them perpetually indebted to their employers.

   • Housing rules and covenants often explicitly barred immigrants from certain areas.

   • Immigrants were ridiculed for their accents, customs, and traditional clothing.

   • The media often portrayed immigrants in a negative light.

   • Immigrants and immigrant communities were disproportionally targeted by the Red Scare. 

6. Engagement

   • Because of the everyday discrimination they faced, immigrant often joined trade unions, participating in strikes the fight for better wages and working conditions. 

   • Some became involved in local politics and advocacy, seeking to improve conditions for their communities – examples include Fiorello La Guardia , Emma Goldman, David Dubinsky and Rose Schneiderman.